U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Aviation Administration

Flight Standards Service

Revised 1997

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PREFACE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 -- PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
INTRODUCTION	1-1
FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT	1-1
Terms and Definitions	1-2
Lift	1-3
Gravity (Weight)	1-4
Thrust
Drag	1-5
Induced Drag	1-5
Parasite Drag	1-5
Relationship Between Angle of Attack and Lift	1-5
Relationship of Thrust and Drag in Straight-and-Level Flight	1-6
Relationship Between Lift and Weight in Straight-and-Level Flight	1-7
Factors Affecting Lift and Drag	1-7
Effect of Wing Area on Lift and Drag	1-7
Effect of Airfoil Shape on Lift and Drag	1-8
Effect of Wing Design on Stall	1-8
Effect of Airspeed on Lift and Drag	1-8
Effect of Air Density on Lift and Drag	1-8
TURNING TENDENCY (TORQUE EFFECT)	1-9
Torque Reaction	1-10
Spiraling Slipstream	1-10
Gyroscopic Precession	1-10
Asymmetric Propeller Loading ("P" Factor)	1-10
Corrections for Turning Tendency or Torque During Flight	1-11
	1-11
AIRPLANE STABILITY	1-11
Positive Stability	1-11
Neutral Stability	1-12
Negative Stability	1-13
Longitudinal Stability about the Lateral Axis	1-14
Longitudinal Control (Pitch) about the Lateral Axis
Lateral Stability about the Longitudinal Axis	1-15
Dihedral	1-15
Sweepback	1-15
Keel Effect	1-15
Lateral Control about the Longitudinal Axis	1-16
Lateral Stability or Instability in Turns	1-16
Directional Stability about the Vertical Axis (YAW)	1-16
Directional Control about the Vertical Axis (YAW)	1-17
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS	1-17
Load Factors and Airplane Design	1-18
Effect of Turns on Load Factor	1-18
Effect of Load Factor on Stalling Speed	1-19
Effect of Speed on Load Factor	1-20
Effect of Flight Maneuvers on Load Factor	1-20
Effect of Turbulence on Load Factor	1-21
Determining Load Factors in Flight	1-21
Forces Acting on the Airplane when at Airspeeds Slower than Cruise	1-22
Forces in a Climb	1-22
Forces in a Glide	1-23
Turns During Flight	1-24
CHAPTER 2 -- AIRPLANES AND ENGINES
INTRODUCTION	2-1
AIRPLANE STRUCTURE	2-1
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS	2-1
Wing Flaps	2-2
Landing Gear	2-2
Conventional Landing Gear	2-2
Tricycle Landing Gear	2-2
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM	2-3
ENGINE OPERATION	2-5
How an Engine Operates	2-6
Cooling System	2-7
Ignition System	2-8
Fuel System	2-9
Fuel Tanks, Selectors, Strainers, and Drains	2-9
Fuel Primer	2-9
Fuel Pressure Gauge	2-9
Induction, Carburetion, and Injection Systems	2-9
Carburetor System	2-9
Mixture Control	2-10
Carburetor Icing	2-10
Conditions Conducive to Carburetor Icing	2-10
Indications of Carburetor Icing	2-11
Use of Carburetor Heat	2-11
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge	2-11
Outside Air Temperature Gauge	2-12
Fuel Injection System	2-12
Proper Fuel is Essential	2-12
Fuel Contamination	2-13
Refueling Procedures	2-13
Oil System	2-14
PROPELLER	2-14
Fixed-Pitch Propeller	2-15
Controllable-Pitch Propellers	2-16
STARTING THE ENGINE	2-17
Engines Equipped with a Starter	2-17
Engines Not Equipped with a Starter	2-17
Idling the Engine During Flight	2-18
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE GAUGE	2-18
AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS, MAINTENANCE, AND INSPECTIONS	2-18
Aircraft Owner Responsibilities	2-18
Certificate of Aircraft Registration	2-19
Airworthiness Certificate	2-19
Aircraft Maintenance	2-20
Inspections	2-21
Annual Inspection	2-21
100-Hour Inspection	2-21
Other Inspection Programs	2-21
Preflight Inspection	2-21
Preventive Maintenance	2-21
Repairs and Alterations	2-22
Deferred Repair	2-22
Special Flight Permits	2-22
Airworthiness Directives	2-22
CHAPTER 3 -- FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION	3-1
THE PITOT - STATIC SYSTEM AND ASSOCIATED INSTRUMENTS	3-1
Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines	3-1
Static Pressure Chamber and Lines	3-1
Altimeter	3-2
Principle of Operation	3-2
Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature	3-2
Setting the Altimeter	3-3
Types of Altitude	3-4
Vertical Speed Indicator	3-4
Principle of Operation
Airspeed Indicator	3-5
Kinds of Airspeed	3-5
Indicated Airspeed	3-5
Calibrated Airspeed	3-5
True Airspeed	3-5
Airspeed Indicator Markings	3-6
Other Airspeed Limitations	3-6
GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS	3-6
Sources of Power for Gyroscopic Operation	3-7
Vacuum or Pressure System	3-7
Engine-Driven Vacuum Pump	3-7
Gyroscopic Principles	3-7
Turn Coordinator	3-8
The Heading Indicator	3-8
The Attitude Indicator	3-9
MAGNETIC COMPASS	3-10
Compass Errors	3-11
Variation	3-11
Deviation	3-11
Using the Magnetic Compass	3-12
CHAPTER 4 -- WEIGHT AND BALANCE AND AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION	4-1
WEIGHT CONTROL	4-1
Effects of Weight	4-1
Weight Changes	4-2
BALANCE, STABILITY, AND CENTER OF GRAVITY	4-2
Effects of Adverse Balance	4-2
Management of Weight and Balance Control	4-3
Terms and Definitions	4-3
Control of Loading -- General Aviation Airplanes	4-4
Basic Principles of Weight and Balance Computations	4-4
Weight and Balance Restrictions	4-5
DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT AND CENTER OF GRAVITY	4-6
Computational Method	4-6
Graph Method	4-6
Table Method	4-8
Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight	4-8
Weight Shifting	4-8
Weight Addition or Removal	4-9
AIRPLANE PERFORMANCE	4-10
Density Altitude	4-10
Effect of Density Altitude on Engine Power and Propeller Efficiency	4-10
Humidity	4-11
Effect of Wind on Airplane Performance	4-11
Runway Surface Condition and Gradient	4-11
Ground Effect	4-11
Use of Performance Charts	4-11
Interpolation	4-12
Performance Charts	4-13
Density Altitude Charts	4-13
Takeoff Data Charts	4-14
Climb and Cruise Performance Data	4-15
Landing Performance Data	4-16
Combined Graphs	4-16
STARTING THE ENGINE	2-17
Engines Equipped with a Starter	2-17
Engines Not Equipped with a Starter	2-17
Idling the Engine During Flight	2-18
CHAPTER 5 -- WEATHER
INTRODUCTION	5-1
OBSERVATIONS	5-1
Surface Aviation Weather Observations	5-1
Upper Air Observations	5-1
Radar Observation	5-1
SERVICE OUTLETS	5-2
FAA Flight Service Station (FSS)	5-2
Pilot's Automatic Telephone Weather Answering System (PATWAS)	5-2
Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS)	5-2
Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS)	5-2
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)	5-2
WEATHER BRIEFING	5-2
Standard Briefing	5-2
Abbreviated Briefing	5-3
Outlook Briefing	5-3
NATURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE	5-3
Oxygen and the Human Body	5-4
Significance of Atmospheric Pressure	5-4
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure	5-4
Effect of Altitude on Atmospheric Pressure	5-4
Effect of Altitude on Flight	5-4
Effect of Differences in Air Density	5-6
Pressure Recorded in "Millibars"	5-6
Wind	5-6
THE CAUSE OF ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION	5-6
Wind Patterns	5-7
Convection Currents	5-8
Effect of Obstructions on Wind	5-10
Low-Level Wind Shear	5-11
Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface Weather Maps	5-12
MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE	5-14
Relative Humidity	5-14
Temperature/Dewpoint Relationship	5-14
Methods by Which Air Reaches the Saturation Point	5-14
Effect of Temperature on Air Density	5-14
Effect of Temperature on Flight	5-14
Effect of High Humidity on Air Density	5-15
Effect of High Humidity on Flight	5-15
Dew and Frost	5-15
Fog	5-15
Clouds	5-15
Ceiling	5-18
Visibility	5-19
Precipitation	5-19
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS	5-19
Warm Front	5-19
Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front	5-20
Cold Front	5-21
Fast-Moving Cold Fronts	5-21
Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front	5-21
Comparison of Cold Fronts with Warm Fronts	5-22
Wind Shifts	5-22
Occluded Front	5-22
AVIATION WEATHER REPORTS, FORECASTS, AND WEATHER CHARTS	5-24
Aviation Weather Reports	5-25
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)	5-25
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPS)	5-28
Radar Weather Reports (RAREPs)	5-28
Aviation Forecasts	5-29
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)	5-29
Area Forecast (FA)	5-30
In-Flight Weather Advisories	5-31
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)	5-31
Airmen's Meteorological Information (AIRMET)	5-32
Convective Significant Meteorological Information	5-32
Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FD)	5-32
Weather Charts	5-32
Surface Analysis Chart	5-33
Weather Depiction Chart	5-34
Radar Summary Chart	5-34
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts	5-34
CHAPTER 6 -- AIRPORT OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTION	6-1
TYPES OF AIRPORTS	6-1
Controlled Airport	6-1
Uncontrolled Airport	6-1
SOURCES FOR AIRPORT DATA	6-1
Aeronautical Charts	6-1
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)	6-1
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)	6-3
AIRPORT MARKINGS AND SIGNS	6-3
Runway Markings	6-3
Taxiway Markings	6-4
Other Markings	6-4
Airport Signs	6-4
AIRPORT LIGHTING	6-4
Airport Beacon	6-5
Approach Light Systems	6-6
Visual Glideslope Indicators	6-6
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)	6-6
Other Glidepath Systems	6-6
Runway Lighting	6-7
Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)	6-7
Runway Edge Lights	6-7
In-Runway Lighting	6-7
Control of Airport Lighting	6-8
Taxiway Lights	6-8
Obstruction Lights	6-8
WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS	6-8
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS	6-8
Radio License	6-9
Radio Equipment	6-9
Radio Procedures	6-10
Lost Communication Procedures	6-10
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES	6-11
Primary Radar	6-11
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)	6-12
Transponder	6-12
Radar Traffic Information Service	6-12
WAKE TURBULENCE	6-13
Vortex Generation	6-13
Vortex Strength	6-13
Vortex Behavior	6-13
Vortex Avoidance Procedures	6-14
COLLISION AVOIDANCE	6-14
Clearing Procedures	6-15
CHAPTER 7 -- AIRSPACE
INTRODUCTION	7-1
CONTROLLED AIRSPACE	7-1
Class A Airspace	7-1
Class B Airspace	7-1
Class C Airspace	7-1
Class D Airspace	7-1
Class E Airspace	7-3
UNCONTROLLED AIRSPACE	7-3
Class G Airspace	7-3
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE	7-3
Prohibited Areas	7-3
Restricted Areas	7-3
Warning Areas	7-3
Military Operation Areas	7-4
Alert Areas	7-4
Controlled Firing Areas	7-4
National Security Areas	7-4
OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS	7-4
Airport Advisory Areas	7-4
Military Training Routes	7-4
Temporary Flight Restrictions	7-4
Parachute Jump Areas	7-4
Published VFR Routes	7-4
CHAPTER 8 -- NAVIGATION
INTRODUCTION	8-1
AERONAUTICAL CHARTS	8-1
Sectional Charts	8-1
Visual Flight Rule (VFR) Terminal Area Charts	8-1
World Aeronautical Charts	8-1
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE (MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS)	8-3
Time Zones	8-3
Measurement of Direction	8-4
Variation	8-4
Deviation	8-5
EFFECT OF WIND	8-7
BASIC CALCULATIONS	8-8
Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours	8-8
Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour	8-9
Fuel Consumption	8-9
Flight Computers	8-9
Plotter	8-9
PILOTAGE	8-9
DEAD RECKONING	8-11
The Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis	8-11
FLIGHT PLANNING	8-13
Assembling Necessary Material	8-13
Weather Check	8-13
Use of the Airport/Facility Directory	8-15
Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook	8-15
CHARTING THE COURSE	8-15
Steps in Charting the Course	8-15
FILING A VFR FLIGHT PLAN	8-17
RADIO NAVIGATION	8-18
Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR)	8-18
Using the VOR	8-20
Tracking with Omni	8-20
Tips on Using the VOR	8-21
Automatic Direction Finder	8-22
Other Navigational Systems	8-24
CHAPTER 9 -- AEROMEDICAL INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION	9-1
OBTAINING A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE	9-1
HEALTH FACTORS AFFECTING PILOT PERFORMANCE	9-2
Alcohol	9-2
Fatigue	9-2
Anxiety	9-2
Stress	9-2
Emotion	9-3
Tobacco	9-3
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PILOT PERFORMANCE	9-3
Hypoxia	9-3
Hyperventilation in Flight	9-4
Middle Ear Discomfort or Pain	9-4
Spatial Disorientation and Illusions in Flight	9-4
Motion Sickness	9-5
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning	9-5
Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving	9-5
Vision in Flight	9-6

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